Anatomy, Physiology

Summary of the physical structures of the body, focused on the limits of current research. The goal is to outline a system of development, enabling the activation and use of lesser-understood or presently undiscovered systems.

Investigate (inquire, look at, 'ask') physical structure, with an eye towards seeing connctions and establishing valid correspendences.

The OLDER a word is, not only did it have more time to develop and gather power of meaning and usage, but also to grow more varied associations of meaning.

We can make analogies between physical structures, their function, and an extended or REVEALED structure that you guess or postulate to be there, guided by morphology in the same way we make assertions about fruit medicinal properties from the nature of their skin.

The Heart

Anatomy of the Lungs

The Digestive System

The digestive system is made up of the alimentary canal (also called the digestive tract) and other organs, such as the liver and pancreas. The alimentary canal is the long tube of organs including the esophagus, stomach, and intestine. An adult's digestive tract is about 30 feet (about 9 meters) long.

As the teeth tear and chop the food, spit moistens it for easy swallowing. A digestive enzyme in saliva called amylase (pronounced: AH-meh-lace) starts to break down some of the carbohydrates (starches and sugars) in the food even before it leaves the mouth.

Swallowing, done by muscle movements in the tongue and mouth, moves the food into the throat, or pharynx (pronounced: FAIR-inks). The pharynx is a passageway for food and air. A soft flap of tissue called the epiglottis closes over the windpipe when we swallow to prevent choking.

From the throat, food travels down a muscular tube in the chest called the esophagus. Waves of muscle contractions called peristalsis force food down through the esophagus to the stomach. A person normally isn't aware of the movements of the esophagus, stomach, and intestine that take place as food passes through the digestive tract.

At the end of the esophagus, a muscular ring allows food to enter the stomach and then squeezes shut to keep food or fluid from flowing back up into the esophagus. The stomach muscles churn and mix the food with digestive juices that have acids and enzymes, breaking it into much smaller, digestible pieces. An acidic environment is needed for the digestion that takes place in the stomach.

By the time food is ready to leave the stomach, it has been processed into a thick liquid called chyme. A walnut-sized muscular valve at the outlet of the stomach called the pylorus keeps chyme in the stomach until it reaches the right consistency to pass into the small intestine. Chyme is then squirted down into the small intestine, where digestion of food continues so the body can absorb the nutrients into the bloodstream.

The Small Intestine

The inner wall of the small intestine is covered with millions of microscopic, finger-like projections called villi (pronounced: VIH-lie). The villi are the vehicles through which nutrients can be absorbed into the blood. The blood then brings these nutrients to the rest of the body. The small intestine is composed of three parts:

1. The duodenum, the C-shaped first part
2. The jejunum, the coiled midsection
3. The ileum, the final section that leads into the large intestine

The liver (under the ribcage in the right upper part of the abdomen), the gallbladder (hidden just below the liver), and the pancreas (beneath the stomach) are not part of the alimentary canal, but these organs are essential to digestion.

The liver makes bile, which helps the body absorb fat. Bile is stored in the gallbladder until it is needed. The pancreas makes enzymes that help digest proteins, fats, and carbs. It also makes a substance that neutralizes stomach acid. These enzymes and bile travel through special pathways (called ducts) into the small intestine, where they help to break down food. The liver also helps process nutrients in the bloodstream.

From the small intestine, undigested food (and some water) travels to the large intestine through a muscular ring or valve that prevents food from returning to the small intestine.

ANATOMY OF THE EYE

The eye sits in a protective bony socket called the orbit. Six extraocular muscles in the orbit are attached to the eye. These muscles move the eye up and down, side to side, and rotate the eye. The extraocular muscles are attached to the white part of the eye called the sclera. This is a strong layer of tissue that covers nearly the entire surface of the eyeball.

The surface of the eye and the inner surface of the eyelids are covered with a clear membrane called the conjunctiva. Tears lubricate the eye and are made up of three layers. These three layers together are called the tear film. The mucous layer is made by the conjunctiva. The watery part of the tears is made by the lacrimal gland. The eye’s lacrimal gland sits under the outside edge of the eyebrow (away from the nose) in the orbit. The meibomian gland makes the oil that becomes another part of the tear film. Tears drain from the eye through the tear duct.

Light is focused into the eye through the clear, dome-shaped front portion of the eye called the cornea. Behind the cornea is a fluid-filled space called the anterior chamber. The fluid is called aqueous humor. The eye is always producing aqueous humor. To maintain a constant eye pressure, aqueous humor also drains from the eye in an area called the drainage angle. Behind the anterior chamber is the eye’s iris (the colored part of the eye) and the dark hole in the middle called the pupil. Muscles in the iris dilate (widen) or constrict (narrow) the pupil to control the amount of light reaching the back of the eye.

Directly behind the pupil sits the lens. The lens focuses light toward the back of the eye. The lens changes shape to help the eye focus on objects up close. Small fibers called zonules are attached to the capsule holding the lens, suspending it from the eye wall. The lens is surrounded by the lens capsule, which is left in place when the lens is removed during cataract surgery. Some types of replacement intraocular lenses go inside the capsule, where the natural lens was. By helping to focus light as it enters the eye, the cornea and the lens both play important roles in giving us clear vision. In fact, 70% of the eye's focusing power comes from the cornea and 30% from the lens.

The vitreous cavity lies between the lens and the back of the eye. A jellylike substance called vitreous humor fills the cavity. Light that is focused into the eye by the cornea and lens passes through the vitreous onto the retina, the light-sensitive tissue lining the back of the eye. A tiny but very specialized area of the retina called the macula is responsible for giving us our detailed, central vision. The other part of the retina, the peripheral retina, provides us with our peripheral (side) vision.

The retina has special cells called photoreceptors. These cells change light into energy that is transmitted to the brain. There are two types of photoreceptors: rods and cones. Rods perceive black and white, and enable night vision. Cones perceive color, and provide central (detail) vision. The retina sends light as electrical impulses through the optic nerve to the brain. The optic nerve is made up of millions of nerve fibers that transmit these impulses to the visual cortex, the part of the brain responsible for our sight.

The Ear

Hormonal System

Skin

Skin

Immune System

Muscles

HEART, BLOOD, ELECTRICITY

Water

Circulation

Respiration

Control Systems

Cleansing, Purification, Detox

Digestion, Absorbtion

Reproduction

Bone

DNA